The History of Extra Virgin Olive Oil
Olive oil has been pressed from fruit for roughly 8,000 years¹ ². What started as a sacred commodity in Bronze Age temple offerings now sits in kitchen cupboards across every continent, its journey mirroring the rise and fall of empires, the spread of religions, and the evolution of global trade³ ⁴. This isn't just culinary history; it's a story about how one tree shaped human civilisation.
Where it all began
Archaeological evidence points to olive cultivation beginning around 6000 BCE in the southeastern Mediterranean, likely in regions corresponding to modern-day Syria, Palestine, and Israel¹ ⁵ ⁶. The oldest physical evidence of olive oil production comes from Kfar Samir, a Neolithic village now submerged off Israel's coast, dated to approximately 5600-5000 BCE⁴. Pollen records from 23 Mediterranean locations confirm that large-scale cultivation in the southeastern Mediterranean preceded northern and western Mediterranean regions by roughly 3,000 years⁶ ⁷.
The Minoans of Crete became Europe's first major olive oil producers around 3000 BCE³ ⁸. Archaeological finds including olive presses and storage jars demonstrate that oil was central to their economy, used for cooking, lighting lamps, and religious ceremonies⁸. By the Early Bronze Age, pollen records show massive increases in olive cultivation, with production exceeding local needs and indicating established trade networks⁷. This wasn't subsistence farming, it was commercial agriculture requiring knowledge of grafting, vegetative propagation, and careful timing, the foundations of modern olive cultivation⁷.
Ancient Greece and the sacred tree
In ancient Greece, olive oil transcended practical use to become a sacred commodity³. Greek mythology credits the goddess Athena with planting the first olive tree, winning possession of Athens by offering this gift to the gods⁴. Homer's epic poems famously referred to olive oil as "liquid gold," a phrase that persists 2,800 years later³ ⁸.
Greeks used olive oil across every aspect of life: as food, in religious ceremonies, as a base for perfumes, and in medicinal practices⁸. Athletes rubbed themselves with it before competitions to symbolise purity and health³. The oil's economic importance drove Mediterranean trade, with amphorae (clay vessels) of Greek oil becoming common cargo across ancient shipping routes³. This wasn't just commerce, it was cultural export, spreading Greek agricultural knowledge and olive cultivation techniques throughout the Mediterranean basin³ ⁸.
Roman expansion and standardisation
The Roman Empire transformed olive oil from regional commodity to industrial product⁸ ⁹. Romans expanded olive cultivation throughout their vast territories, from North Africa to Spain and along major river systems⁸ ⁹. They developed advanced production methods, including large-scale presses that increased efficiency and output⁸. Olive oil became crucial to the Roman economy, used extensively in cooking, bathing, cosmetics, medicine, and as fuel for lamps⁸.
Roman soldiers received olive oil rations as part of their standard diet⁸. The physician Galen praised its health benefits, cementing its reputation in ancient medicine³. Archaeological evidence, particularly the abundance of amphorae found across Europe, reveals sophisticated trade networks extending along the Rhône and Rhine rivers, positioning olive oil as one of the Roman Empire's most valued commodities⁹. The Romans standardised cultivation and production techniques across their territories, particularly in Hispania (modern Spain), which became one of the most important olive oil producing regions, a status it maintains today⁹.
Medieval decline and Arab revival
Following Rome's fall, olive oil production declined significantly across much of Europe¹⁰ ¹¹. The Middle Ages brought political instability, plagues, and dramatic population shifts that disrupted agricultural traditions¹⁰. Olive oil became expensive, and conquering peoples associated it with Roman customs, relegating it primarily to wealthy elites and religious use¹¹. In medieval Europe, religious orders controlled much olive oil production, using it for liturgical purposes and lighting altar lamps in churches¹¹.
The Arab conquest of Spain between the 8th and 15th centuries revitalised olive cultivation⁹ ¹⁰. The Koran, like the Bible and Torah, praises olive oil's virtues, and Arab culture valued this "delicacy" highly¹⁰. Arab rulers inherited generations of Spanish farmers who maintained agrarian techniques from Roman times¹⁰. These farmers continued cultivating olives, ensuring Andalusia maintained an important position in world olive oil production throughout the Middle Ages¹⁰. Arab agricultural expertise, including sophisticated water management and grafting techniques, improved cultivation methods and introduced new varieties, significantly expanding olive groves in the Iberian Peninsula⁹ ¹⁰.
Industrial revolution and mechanisation
The 18th and 19th centuries brought dramatic changes to olive oil production¹² ¹³. Enlightenment-era reformers and entrepreneurs modified every stage of the process, from collection through milling and pressing¹³. Crushing stones became larger and more precisely cut, whilst animal power gave way to waterwheels and eventually steam-powered machinery¹². Traditional beam presses were replaced by central screw presses mounted in structures that dramatically increased extraction force¹³.
These mechanised mills could process multiple batches simultaneously, with olive paste moving through an ordered sequence of measured pressings¹³. An optimised mill in 1780s Apulia could process eight full loads in 48 hours, operating continuously¹³. This increased efficiency came with consequences, however, as it transformed both labour conditions and the nature of olive oil itself¹³. Mechanisation fundamentally changed how olive oil tasted and what it was used for, with growing international demand from northern Europe and colonial networks driving production of low-acidity oils that could withstand long-distance shipping¹³.
The Industrial Revolution's lighting technologies initially decreased olive oil demand as cheaper alternatives emerged¹¹. However, by the late 19th century, olive oil's value as both industrial lubricant and food product drove renewed growth¹³. Countries like Spain, Italy, and Greece found their "agro-industrial vocations," beginning the definitive process of olive cultivation that would position them among the 20th century's leading producers¹².
Modern production and technology
Today's olive oil industry bears little resemblance to ancient methods¹⁴. Traditional stone grinders have largely been replaced by sophisticated electronically-controlled milling equipment that limits oxygen exposure and preserves healthy compounds and flavour characteristics¹⁴. Modern crushers and hammer mills process olives quickly, creating paste that moves into temperature-controlled malaxers (kneaders) where slow stirring breaks up water-oil emulsions¹⁴.
The extraction process has evolved from manual pressing to centrifugation¹⁴. Decanters spin at high speeds to separate oil from water and pulp, allowing producers to tailor transformation processes to specific needs by altering operating times, temperatures, and atmospheric composition¹⁴. Strict temperature controls ensure extra virgin classification, never exceeding 27°C during processing¹⁴. Recent innovations like pulsed electric field (PEF) technology can reduce malaxing time from 45 minutes to as little as 5 minutes whilst maintaining yield and quality¹⁵.
Olive cultivation itself has diversified beyond traditional models¹⁵. Whilst traditional groves still dominate, intensive and high-density plantations now represent 22% and 6% respectively of global olive cultivation¹⁵. Super-high-density "hedge" groves, which emerged in 1995, occupy nearly 4% of total olive area, adapting to climate changes and labour shortages¹⁵. Olive oil production has expanded to more than 66 countries, challenging the old assumption that "the olive tree ends where the Mediterranean ends"¹⁵. Production has tripled over the last 60 years, reaching 2.76 million tonnes in the 2022-23 crop year¹⁶.
The quality revolution
Perhaps the most significant modern development isn't mechanical but conceptual: the focus on quality over quantity. Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), the highest grade extracted mechanically without heat or chemicals, has become the quality benchmark². Modern consumers increasingly seek single-origin, single-varietal oils that express specific terroirs rather than anonymous blends designed for consistency².
This quality emphasis has driven renewed interest in traditional varieties like Spain's Cornicabra, which offers distinctive flavours and high polyphenol content². Certifications and protected designations of origin help maintain authenticity, protecting consumers from fraud whilst ensuring traditional production methods are honoured¹². Sustainability has become a cornerstone consideration, with producers adopting organic farming, water conservation, and waste management practices to maintain long-term viability¹².
The European Union, particularly Spain, Italy, and Greece, remains the dominant producer and exporter¹¹. However, New World producers in California, Australia, Chile, and South Africa have established quality reputations, applying modern technology to traditional Mediterranean practices¹⁵. The Mediterranean diet's UNESCO World Heritage designation increased global demand for olive oil, valued not just for flavour but for documented health benefits¹¹.
From ritual to everyday kitchen
What ancient Minoans pressed for temple offerings now enhances everyday cooking across the world³ ⁴. The trajectory from sacred commodity to industrial lubricant to premium food product reveals shifting cultural values and technological capabilities. Yet the fundamental process, crushing olives to release their oil, remains essentially unchanged despite 8,000 years of refinement¹ ¹⁴.
The olive tree's remarkable longevity, some specimens living over 2,000 years, mirrors olive oil's persistence in human culture. From Greek athletes to Roman soldiers, from medieval monks to modern home cooks, each generation has found uses for this fruit's pressed liquid³ ⁸ ¹⁰. Understanding this history enriches appreciation for the bottle in your kitchen cupboard. That oil connects directly to Bronze Age traders, classical philosophers, Arab agriculturalists, and Industrial Revolution entrepreneurs, all of whom recognised that something remarkable happens when pressure meets ripe olives¹ ³ ⁸ ⁹ ¹³.
Glossary
Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO): The highest grade of olive oil, extracted mechanically without heat or chemicals, with acidity below 0.8% and no flavour defects².
Malaxer: A temperature-controlled kneading machine that slowly stirs olive paste to break up water-oil emulsions, allowing larger oil droplets to form for easier extraction¹⁴.
Polyphenols: Natural plant compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that contribute bitter and peppery flavours whilst providing health benefits².
Terroir: The complete growing environment including soil type, climate, altitude, and landscape features that influences how olives develop and taste².
Amphorae: Clay vessels used in ancient times for transporting and storing olive oil and other liquids, particularly common in Greek and Roman trade³ ⁸.
References
- The Timeless Elegance of Olive Oil: From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Day - https://saratogaoliveoil.com/blogs/news/the-timeless-elegance-of-olive-oil-from-ancient-civilizations-to-modern-day
- Why Single Origin Olive Oils Matter – Own post
- The History of Olive Oil: From Ancient Times to Modern Day - https://tastefullyolive.com/blogs/articles/the-history-of-olive-oil-from-ancient-times-to-modern-day
- The Archaeology of Olive Oil in the Ancient World - https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/the-archaeology-of-olive-oil-in-the-ancient-world
- Olive Oil - Wikipedia - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_oil
- Everything About the Olive Tree: Its History, Varieties, and Development in Spain - https://www.aceitunastorrent.com/en/blog-en/everything-about-the-olive-tree-history-varieties-and-development-in-spain/
- The History of Olive Cultivation in the Southern Levant - https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9996078/
- History of Olive Oil Production: From Ancient Harvests to Modern Methods - https://tastefullyolive.com/blogs/articles/the-history-of-olive-oil-from-ancient-times-to-modern-day
- Everything About the Olive Tree: History, Varieties, and Development - https://www.aceitunastorrent.com/en/blog-en/everything-about-the-olive-tree-history-varieties-and-development-in-spain/
- The Middle Ages - Olive Oil History - https://haziendalarambla.com/en/p/olive-oil-history/the-middle-ages-3-31
- Origin of Olive Oil: The Story of Liquid Gold - https://aceitedelcampo.com/en/origin-of-olive-oil/
- Industrial Revolution - Olive Oil History - https://haziendalarambla.com/en/p/olive-oil-history/industrial-revolution-3-35
- Extra Virgin Olive Oil is the Flavour of Mechanisation - https://aeon.co/essays/extra-virgin-olive-oil-is-the-flavour-of-mechanisation
- How Olives Are Processed Into Oil - https://www.oliveoiltimes.com/basics/how-olives-are-processed-into-oil/117686
- Analysis of Modern Olive Growing and its Agroindustry - https://brioagro.com/analysis-of-modern-olive-growing-and-its-agroindustry/
- World Market of Olive Oil and Table Olives - Data From December 2024 - https://www.internationaloliveoil.org/world-market-of-olive-oil-and-table-olives-data-from-december-2024/